Are Amoeba Plant Like or Animal Like

Are Amoeba Plant Like or Animal Like

Polyphyletic group of unicellular eukaryotes with the power to shapeshift

An amoeba (; less commonly spelled ameba or amœba; plural am(o)ebas or am(o)ebae ), ^[i] oft called an amoeboid, is a blazon of prison cell or unicellular organism which has the ability to alter its shape, primarily by extending and retracting pseudopods. ^[2] Amoebae do not grade a single taxonomic group; instead, they are found in every major lineage of eukaryotic organisms. Amoeboid cells occur non only amongst the protozoa, but also in fungi, algae, and animals. ^{[three] [4] [five] [vi] [7]}

Microbiologists often use the terms "amoeboid" and "amoeba" interchangeably for any organism that exhibits amoeboid movement. ^{[viii] [ix]}

In older nomenclature systems, most amoebae were placed in the course or subphylum Sarcodina, a group of unmarried-celled organisms that possess pseudopods or move by protoplasmic flow. Yet, molecular phylogenetic studies have shown that Sarcodina is not a monophyletic group whose members share common descent. Consequently, amoeboid organisms are no longer classified together in one group. ^[10]

The best known amoeboid protists are Anarchy carolinense and Amoeba proteus , both of which take been widely cultivated and studied in classrooms and laboratories. ^{[11] [12]} Other well known species include the and then-called "brain-eating amoeba" Naegleria fowleri , the abdominal parasite Entamoeba histolytica , which causes amoebic dysentery, and the multicellular "social amoeba" or slime mould Dictyostelium discoideum .

Shape, movement and nutrition [ edit ]

The forms of pseudopodia, from left: polypodial and lobose; monopodial and lobose; filose; conical; reticulose; tapering actinopods; not-tapering actinopods

Amoebae do not have cell walls, which allows for complimentary movement. Amoebae move and feed by using pseudopods, which are bulges of cytoplasm formed past the coordinated action of actin microfilaments pushing out the plasma membrane that surrounds the jail cell. ^[thirteen] The appearance and internal structure of pseudopods are used to distinguish groups of amoebae from one another. Amoebozoan species, such equally those in the genus Amoeba , typically take bulbous (lobose) pseudopods, rounded at the ends and roughly tubular in cross-section. Cercozoan amoeboids, such as Euglypha and Gromia , take slender, thread-like (filose) pseudopods. Foraminifera emit fine, branching pseudopods that merge with i another to grade net-like (reticulose) structures. Some groups, such as the Radiolaria and Heliozoa, take strong, needle-similar, radiating axopodia (actinopoda) supported from within by bundles of microtubules. ^{[3] [14]}

Gratis-living amoebae may exist "testate" (enclosed inside a hard shell), or "naked" (also known equally gymnamoebae, lacking any hard covering). The shells of testate amoebae may be composed of various substances, including calcium, silica, chitin, or agglutinations of constitute materials like small grains of sand and the frustules of diatoms. ^[15]

To regulate osmotic force per unit area, most freshwater amoebae have a contractile vacuole which expels excess h2o from the cell. ^[xvi] This organelle is necessary considering freshwater has a lower concentration of solutes (such as common salt) than the amoeba's own internal fluids (cytosol). Because the surrounding water is hypotonic with respect to the contents of the jail cell, water is transferred across the amoeba's cell membrane by osmosis. Without a contractile vacuole, the cell would fill up with excess water and, eventually, burst. Marine amoebae exercise not usually possess a contractile vacuole because the concentration of solutes within the jail cell are in rest with the tonicity of the surrounding water. ^[17]

Diet [ edit ]

The food sources of amoebae vary. Some amoebae are predatory and live by consuming bacteria and other protists. Some are detritivores and eat dead organic textile.

Amoebae typically ingest their food by phagocytosis, extending pseudopods to encircle and engulf live prey or particles of scavenged material. Amoeboid cells do not take a oral fissure or cytostome, and there is no fixed place on the jail cell at which phagocytosis unremarkably occurs. ^[eighteen]

Some amoebae also feed by pinocytosis, imbibing dissolved nutrients through vesicles formed inside the cell membrane. ^[19]

Size range [ edit ]

Foraminifera have reticulose (cyberspace-like) pseudopods, and many species are visible with the naked eye

The size of amoeboid cells and species is extremely variable. The marine amoeboid Massisteria voersi is just two.3 to 3 micrometres in diameter, ^[twenty] within the size range of many bacteria. ^[21] At the other extreme, the shells of deep-ocean xenophyophores can attain 20 cm in diameter. ^[22] Near of the costless-living freshwater amoebae commonly found in pond water, ditches, and lakes are microscopic, but some species, such equally the so-chosen "giant amoebae" Pelomyxa palustris and Anarchy carolinense , tin can exist large enough to come across with the naked eye.

Species or jail cell type	Size in micrometers
Massisteria voersi [20]	ii.iii–3
Naegleria fowleri [23]	8–15
Neutrophil (white blood cell) [24]	12–15
Acanthamoeba [25]	12–40
Entamoeba histolytica [26]	15–60
Arcella vulgaris [27]	30–152
Amoeba proteus [28]	220–760
Chaos carolinense [29]	700–2000
Pelomyxa palustris [30]	upwards to 5000
Syringammina fragilissima [22]	upwards to 200000

Amoebae every bit specialized cells and life cycle stages [ edit ]

Neutrophil (white blood jail cell) engulfing anthrax bacteria

Some multicellular organisms have amoeboid cells only in certain phases of life, or use amoeboid movements for specialized functions. In the immune arrangement of humans and other animals, amoeboid white blood cells pursue invading organisms, such as bacteria and pathogenic protists, and engulf them past phagocytosis. ^[31]

Amoeboid stages besides occur in the multicellular fungus-like protists, the so-called slime moulds. Both the plasmodial slime moulds, currently classified in the class Myxogastria, and the cellular slime moulds of the groups Acrasida and Dictyosteliida, live as amoebae during their feeding phase. The amoeboid cells of the onetime combine to form a behemothic multinucleate organism, ^[32] while the cells of the latter alive separately until food runs out, at which fourth dimension the amoebae aggregate to course a multicellular migrating "slug" which functions every bit a single organism. ^[8]

Other organisms may also nowadays amoeboid cells during sure life-bike stages, eastward.g., the gametes of some greenish algae (Zygnematophyceae) ^[33] and pennate diatoms, ^[34] the spores (or dispersal phases) of some Mesomycetozoea, ^{[35] [36]} and the sporoplasm stage of Myxozoa and of Ascetosporea. ^[37]

Amoebae as organisms [ edit ]

Early history and origins of Sarcodina [ edit ]

The first illustration of an amoeboid, from Roesel von Rosenhof's Insecten-Belustigung (1755)

The earliest record of an amoeboid organism was produced in 1755 by August Johann Rösel von Rosenhof, who named his discovery "Der Kleine Proteus" ("the Piffling Proteus"). ^[38] Rösel'southward illustrations testify an unidentifiable freshwater amoeba, like in advent to the common species now known as Amoeba proteus. ^[39] The term "Proteus animalcule" remained in use throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, as an informal proper name for any large, free-living amoeboid. ^[forty]

In 1822, the genus Amiba (from the Greek ἀμοιβή amoibe, meaning "change") was erected by the French naturalist Bory de Saint-Vincent. ^{[41] [42]} Bory's contemporary, C. G. Ehrenberg, adopted the genus in his own classification of microscopic creatures, simply changed the spelling to Amoeba. ^[43]

In 1841, Félix Dujardin coined the term "sarcode" (from Greek σάρξ sarx, "flesh," and εἶδος eidos, "form") for the "thick, glutinous, homogenous substance" which fills protozoan cell bodies. ^[44] Although the term originally referred to the protoplasm of any protozoan, information technology soon came to be used in a restricted sense to designate the gelatinous contents of amoeboid cells. ^[10] Thirty years after, the Austrian zoologist Ludwig Karl Schmarda used "sarcode" equally the conceptual basis for his division Sarcodea, a phylum-level group made up of "unstable, changeable" organisms with bodies largely composed of "sarcode". ^[45] Subsequently workers, including the influential taxonomist Otto Bütschli, emended this group to create the grade Sarcodina, ^[46] a taxon that remained in wide utilize throughout almost of the 20th century.

Within the traditional Sarcodina, amoebae were generally divided into morphological categories, on the basis of the form and construction of their pseudopods. Amoebae with pseudopods supported past regular arrays of microtubules (such as the freshwater Heliozoa and marine Radiolaria) were classified as Actinopoda; whereas those with unsupported pseudopods were classified every bit Rhizopoda. ^[47] The Rhizopods were further subdivided into lobose, filose, and reticulose amoebae, co-ordinate to the morphology of their pseudopods.

Dismantling of Sarcodina [ edit ]

In the terminal decade of the 20th century, a series of molecular phylogenetic analyses confirmed that Sarcodina was not a monophyletic group. In view of these findings, the old scheme was abandoned and the amoebae of Sarcodina were dispersed amid many other loftier-level taxonomic groups. Today, the majority of traditional sarcodines are placed in 2 eukaryote supergroups: Amoebozoa and Rhizaria. The rest have been distributed among the excavates, opisthokonts, and stramenopiles. Some, similar the Centrohelida, take yet to be placed in any supergroup. ^{[10] [48]}

Classification [ edit ]

Recent classification places the various amoeboid genera in the following groups:

Supergroups	Major groups and genera	Morphology
Amoebozoa	Lobosa : Acanthamoeba, Amoeba, Balamuthia, Chaos, Clydonella, Discamoeba, Echinamoeba, Filamoeba, Flabellula, Gephyramoeba, Glaeseria, Hartmannella, Hollandella, Hydramoeba, Korotnevella (Dactylamoeba), Leptomyxa, Lingulamoeba, Mastigina, Mayorella, Metachaos, Neoparamoeba, Paramoeba, Polychaos, Phreatamoeba, Platyamoeba, Protoacanthamoeba, Rhizamoeba, Saccamoeba, Sappinia, Stereomyxa, Thecamoeba, Trichamoeba, Trichosphaerium, Unda, Vannella, Vexillifera Conosa: Endamoeba , Entamoeba , Iodamoeba , Mastigamoeba , Mastigella , Pelomyxa , Dictyostelium , Physarum	Lobose pseudopods (Lobosa) are blunt, and at that place may be i or several on a jail cell, which is normally divided into a layer of clear ectoplasm surrounding more granular endoplasm.
Rhizaria	Cercozoa: Filosa : Monadofilosa : Gyromitus , Paulinella Granofilosea Chlorarachniophyceae Endomyxa : Proteomyxidea: orders Aconchulinida, Pseudosporida, Reticulosida Gromiidea Foraminifera Radiolaria	Filose pseudopods (Filosa) are narrow and tapering. The vast majority of filose amoebae, including all those that produce shells, are placed inside the Cercozoa together with various flagellates that tend to have amoeboid forms. The naked filose amoebae also includes vampyrellids. Reticulose pseudopods (Endomyxa) are cytoplasmic strands that branch and merge to grade a net. They are institute most notably amid the Foraminifera, a large group of marine protists that generally produce multi-chambered shells. There are only a few sorts of naked reticulose amoebae, notably the gymnophryids, and their relationships are not certain. Radiolarians are a subgroup of actinopods that are now grouped with rhizarians.
Excavata	Heterolobosea : Vahlkampfiidae: Monopylocystis , Naegleria , Neovahlkampfia , Paratetramitus , Paravahlkampfia , Protonaegleria , Psalteriomonas , Sawyeria , Tetramitus , Vahlkampfia , Willaertia Gruberellidae: Gruberella , Stachyamoeba Parabasalidea: Dientamoeba , Histomonas Other: Rosculus , Acrasis , Heteramoeba , Learamoeba , Stygamoeba , Plaesiobystra , [49] Tulamoeba [49]	The Heterolobosea, includes protists that can transform between amoeboid and flagellate forms.
Heterokonta	Chrysophyceae: Chrysamoeba, Rhizochrysis Xanthophyceae: Rhizochloris Labyrinthulomycetes	The heterokont chrysophyte and xanthophyte algae include some amoeboid members, the latter being poorly studied. [50]
Alveolata	Dinoflagellata: Oodinium , Pfiesteria	Parasite with amoeboid life cycle stages.
Opisthokonta	Nucleariida: Micronuclearia , Nuclearia	Nucleariids appear to be close relatives of animals and fungi.
Ungrouped / unknown	Adelphamoeba , Astramoeba , Dinamoeba , Flagellipodium , Flamella , Gibbodiscus , Gocevia , Malamoeba , Nollandia , Oscillosignum , Paragocevia , Parvamoeba , Pernina , Pontifex , Pseudomastigamoeba , Rugipes , Striamoeba , Striolatus , Subulamoeba , Theratromyxa , Trienamoeba , Trimastigamoeba , and over 40 other genera [51]

Some of the amoeboid groups cited (due east.chiliad., office of chrysophytes, role of xanthophytes, chlorarachniophytes) were non traditionally included in Sarcodina, beingness classified as algae or flagellated protozoa.

Pathogenic interactions with other organisms [ edit ]

Some amoebae can infect other organisms pathogenically, causing illness: ^{[52] [53] [54] [55]}

• Entamoeba histolytica is the cause of amoebiasis, or amoebic dysentery.
• Naegleria fowleri (the "brain-eating amoeba") is a fresh-water-native species that can be fatal to humans if introduced through the nose.
• Acanthamoeba tin can cause amoebic keratitis and encephalitis in humans.
• Balamuthia mandrillaris is the cause of (often fatal) granulomatous amoebic meningoencephalitis.

Amoeba accept been found to harvest and grow the bacteria implicated in plague. ^[56] Amoebae can likewise play host to microscopic organisms that are pathogenic to people and aid in spreading such microbes. Bacterial pathogens (for example, Legionella ) tin can oppose absorption of food when devoured past amoebae. ^[57] The presently generally utilized and all-time-explored amoebae that host other organisms are Acanthamoeba castellanii and Dictyostelium discoideum. ^[58] Microorganisms that can overcome the defenses of 1-celled organisms can shelter and multiply inside them, where they are shielded from unfriendly outside conditions past their hosts.

Meiosis [ edit ]

Contempo bear witness indicates that several Amoebozoa lineages undergo meiosis.

Orthologs of genes employed in meiosis of sexual eukaryotes have recently been identified in the Acanthamoeba genome. These genes included Spo11, Mre11, Rad50, Rad51, Rad52, Mnd1, Dmc1, Msh and Mlh . ^[59] This finding suggests that the ''Acanthamoeba'' are capable of some class of meiosis and may exist able to undergo sexual reproduction.

The meiosis-specific recombinase, Dmc1, is required for efficient meiotic homologous recombination, and Dmc1 is expressed in Entamoeba histolytica . ^[threescore] The purified Dmc1 from E. histolytica forms presynaptic filaments and catalyses ATP-dependent homologous DNA pairing and Dna strand exchange over at least several thousand base pairs. ^[60] The Deoxyribonucleic acid pairing and strand exchange reactions are enhanced by the eukaryotic meiosis-specific recombination accessory factor (heterodimer) Hop2-Mnd1. ^[60] These processes are central to meiotic recombination, suggesting that E. histolytica undergoes meiosis. ^[60]

Studies of Entamoeba invadens found that, during the conversion from the tetraploid uninucleate trophozoite to the tetranucleate cyst, homologous recombination is enhanced. ^[61] Expression of genes with functions related to the major steps of meiotic recombination also increase during encystations. ^[61] These findings in East. invadens, combined with evidence from studies of E. histolytica indicate the presence of meiosis in the Entamoeba.

Dictyostelium discoideum in the supergroup Amoebozoa can undergo mating and sexual reproduction including meiosis when food is scarce. ^{[62] [63]}

Since the Amoebozoa diverged early from the eukaryotic family unit tree, these results suggest that meiosis was present early in eukaryotic development. Furthermore, these findings are consistent with the proposal of Lahr et al. ^[64] that the bulk of amoeboid lineages are anciently sexual.

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Further reading [ edit ]

• Walochnik, J. & Aspöck, H. (2007). Amöben: Paradebeispiele für Probleme der Phylogenetik, Klassifikation und Nomenklatur. Denisia 20: 323–350. (In German)
• Amoebae: Protists Which Move and Feed Using Pseudopodia at the Tree of Life web project
• Pawlowski, J. & Burki, F. (2009). Untangling the Phylogeny of Amoeboid Protists. Periodical of Eukaryotic Microbiology 56.ane: sixteen–25.

External links [ edit ]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Amoeba .

• Siemensma, F. Microworld: world of amoeboid organisms.
• Völcker, Due east. & Clauß, Southward. Visual primal to amoeboid morphotypes. Penard Labs.
• The Amoebae website of Maciver Lab of the Academy of Edinburgh, brings together data from published sources.
• Molecular Expressions Digital Video Gallery: Pond Life – Amoeba (Protozoa) – informative amoeba videos

Are Amoeba Plant Like or Animal Like

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amoeba